[expand]
Speed and Distance
Navigators estimated speed through water by observing how quickly ship passed floating objects or by using simple log—piece of wood thrown overboard and timing how long it took to reach stern. Combined with time estimation (using sun’s position or measuring time by other means), speed measurement allowed calculation of distance traveled.
The estimate was approximate but sufficient. Sailing for estimated ten hours at estimated five knots meant covering roughly fifty nautical miles. The error accumulated over time, but regular celestial observations allowed correction, and dead reckoning provided continuous position awareness between celestial fixes.
Course Maintenance
Maintaining steady course required constant attention. Wind direction changed, currents affected progress, helm needed continuous adjustment. The steersman maintained course by keeping particular star or sun position constant relative to ship, by watching distant landmark, by feeling ship’s behavior and wind’s direction.
The experienced steersman developed intuitive feel for course maintenance—sensing when ship was drifting off course before visual confirmation, making small corrections constantly rather than large corrections occasionally, maintaining smooth, efficient track through water.
[/expand]